{"id":356435,"date":"2026-07-09T11:03:43","date_gmt":"2026-07-09T11:03:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/peraltafinancing.com\/uncategorized\/brazils-competition-authority-introduced-the-first-true-ecosystem-theory-of-harm\/"},"modified":"2026-07-09T11:03:43","modified_gmt":"2026-07-09T11:03:43","slug":"brazils-competition-authority-introduced-the-first-true-ecosystem-theory-of-harm","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/fivemor.com\/?p=356435","title":{"rendered":"Brazil\u2019s Competition Authority Introduced the First True Ecosystem Theory of Harm"},"content":{"rendered":"


\n<\/p>\n

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Competition enforcers have, over the last few years, peppered their reports with references to \u2018ecosystems\u2019. However, until CADE\u2019s recent decision on the Apple case<\/a>, it was no more than jargon. Landmark cases like Google Android<\/a>, Amazon Marketplace<\/a> and Google\/Fitbit<\/a> all refer to \u2018ecosystems\u2019. In its Apple decision<\/a>, the European Commission used \u2018ecosystem(s)\u2019 69 times. The European Commission\u2019s revised market definition notice<\/a> introduced \u201c(digital) ecosystems\u201d.\u00a0 But this linguist inflation has added no substantial analytical value: remove \u2018ecosystem,\u2019 and the cases stand unchanged.<\/p>\n

I have argued elsewhere<\/a> that, to do competition assessment in ecosystems, we need at least three additions to the enforcers\u2019 toolkits:<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. \n

    \u201cEcosystem definition\u201d: empirical methods to define the boundaries and structure of an ecosystem. These are based on measuring commonalities across products, as proposed in a joint paper with Konstantinos Stylianou<\/a>. These methods should supplement\u00a0traditional\u00a0market\u00a0definition,\u00a0which\u00a0relies\u00a0on\u00a0measuring\u00a0demand<\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/p>\n

    substitution\u00a0between\u00a0products.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u00a0<\/p>\n

    \u00a0<\/p>\n

      \n
    1. Ecosystem mechanisms of harm. Economic theory and evidence on how the \u2018usual suspects\u2019 such as economies of scale and scope in data, cross\u2011platform network effects, or demand steering actually impair competition, and marshal evidence accordingly.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \u00a0<\/p>\n

      \u00a0<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Ecosystem theories of harm. New theories of harm that capture non-substituablity-based competitive harms. This post focuses on the third item.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        Competition beyond demand substitution in ecosystems<\/strong><\/p>\n

        Existing rulings evoking \u2018ecosystems\u2019 focus on conventional substitution\u2011based rivalry, yet ecosystems generate other competitive dynamics. While this is not problematic (of course, firms do compete to sell substitutes within and outside of ecosystems), it is not the whole story. The academic literature shows that, in ecosystems, firms also compete in other ways than by selling substitutes. Firms that cooperate to form an ecosystem also compete for value capture within it, as the Epic Games chapter of the Apple cases saga has vividly illustrated. Today\u2019s complementors might become tomorrow\u2019s competitors, as extensively discussed in the envelopment literature. The collection of assets and capabilities<\/a> that make up an ecosystem compete with those of a rival ecosystem. Hence, a firm may face competitive pressure or suffer anti-competitive conducts from firms that inhabit different product spaces but the same (or a rival) ecosystem.<\/p>\n

        Taking these forms of competition beyond (current) substitutability into account should lead to new, ecosystem-specific theories of harm, but also efficiency defenses. Using the Booking\/eTraveli case as inspiration, Batra, de Bijl and Klein<\/a> have proposed theories of harm rationalizing when and how a merger between two firms located in different relevant markets can either increase or decrease ecosystem-vs-ecosystem competition. Yet no agency had operationalized these types of academic insights until CADE\u2019s recent decision\u00a0on\u00a0Apple.<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        CADE\u2019S\u00a0ecosystem\u00a0theory\u00a0of\u00a0harm<\/strong><\/p>\n

        I will not comment on the case in general. Instead, I want to focus on one of the three conducts that CADE investigated, and on which, in my view, the very first ecosystem theory of harm was put forward by a competition authority. Mercado\u202fLivre (a leading e\u2011commerce and payments platform) rolled out an app update offering its \u2018level\u2011six\u2019 loyalty users discounts on HBO\u202fGO and Disney+. Apple first objected<\/a> to the \u2018buttons, external links, or other calls to action\u2019 that bypass in\u2011app purchase. Later, it claimed the feature let users \u2018purchase digital content or services for use outside the app.<\/p>\n

        CADE characterized Apple\u2019s behavior with an envelopment-flavored \u2018defensive leverage\u2019 theory of harm. According to this theory, \u201cthe restrictions imposed aim to prevent complementor (developers) from disintermediating the central platform or creating alternative distribution channels that could threaten Apple’s monopolistic position\u201d. In other words, Apple\u2019s restrictions aim at impeding Mercado Livre and, importantly, any other complementor (i.e., app developer), from disintermediating the orchestrator (Apple) or \u201ccreating alternative distribution channels that could threaten Apple’s monopolistic position\u201d. By this token, Apple would be abusing its orchestrator role in the ecosystem to impede future<\/em> competition from complementors, regardless of whether they are active in a market in which Apple is active.<\/p>\n

        Unlike other theories of harm in prior similar cases brought up against Apple, CADE\u2019s theory does not rely on leverage, bundling, or tying. Moreover, it does not focus the harm on a specific market, as other jurisdictions did (music streaming in the EU<\/a>, dating apps in the Netherlands<\/a> and gaming in the US<\/a>), but on the ecosystem structured around the App Store ecosystem taken as a whole. It is essentially a theory of harm about the abuse of market power by the orchestrator on complementors within an ecosystem. In that respect, it is, in my view, the very first ecosystem theory of harm to permeate competition practice.<\/p>\n

        CADE\u2019s decision could solve the chicken\u2011and\u2011egg dilemma ecosystem theories of harm have been facing: enforcers avoid novel theories because there\u2019s no precedent, so no precedent ever arises. To be fair, Apple\u2019s veto of the Mercado\u202fLivre update is a textbook example found only in Latin America to date. European and American competition authorities would have had a harder time introducing an ecosystem theory of harm in the cases they had to deal with, regardless of how novelty-(un)savvy they might be. In that respect, CADE\u2019s decision has set the pace for other Latin American jurisdictions. Mercado Libre has filed the same complaint in Mexico<\/a>, where the Instituto Federal de Telecomunicaciones and the competition authority, COFECE, are reviewing the case. A similar case against Apple is likely to appear in some of the other 16 Latin American jurisdictions where Mercado Libre is a large player in ecommerce and digital payments, notably in Argentina, its founding market and headquarter.<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        From Promise to Proof: an Interdisciplinary Path to Ground Ecosystem Theories of Harm<\/strong><\/p>\n

        While promising and welcome, for the adoption of ecosystem theories of harm to make a difference, authorities must gather evidence on how certain conducts or mergers can strengthen or soften competitive pressures other than (but without forgetting about) demand substitution. The mechanisms through which this might happen should be substantiated. Harder-to-defend counterfactuals will have to be made.<\/p>\n

        CADE\u2019s decision, grounded in academic work across fields, lights a beacon for collaboration between competition authorities and academic experts. Imagine economists quantifying cross-product complementarities and their impact on ecosystem-wide market power; management scholars assessing organizational and dynamic capabilities to back up counterfactuals; computer scientists showing the effect of recommendation algorithms on product visibility; and psychologists running controlled studies on user choice, each insight feeding antitrust probes. That kind of synergy can transform \u201cecosystem harm\u201d from a promising idea into empirically grounded theories. Otherwise, ecosystem theories of harm risk being, at best, a passing fad and, at worst, a veneer of enforcement that masks analytical gaps. We must resist the temptation to let a new buzzword justify enforcement without rigorous evidence, just as others have justified inaction.<\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/p>\n

        The views expressed in this post are the author\u2019s personal opinions. They do not reflect the official opinion of the Joint Research Centre or the European Commission. No conflict of interest to declare.<\/em><\/p>\n

        \u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<\/p><\/div>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

        Competition enforcers have, over the last few years, peppered their reports with references to \u2018ecosystems\u2019. However, until CADE\u2019s recent decision on the Apple case, it was no more than jargon. Landmark cases like Google Android, Amazon Marketplace and Google\/Fitbit all refer to \u2018ecosystems\u2019. In its Apple decision, the European Commission used \u2018ecosystem(s)\u2019 69 times. The […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":356436,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[107,12083,177605,111821,177606],"tags":[20520,20391,5308,17144,24643,24519,2359,5053],"dealstore":[],"offerexpiration":[],"class_list":["post-356435","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-apple","category-brazil","category-digital-markets","category-ecosystems","category-theory-of-harm","tag-authority","tag-brazils","tag-competition","tag-ecosystem","tag-harm","tag-introduced","tag-theory","tag-true"],"yoast_head":"\nBrazil\u2019s Competition Authority Introduced the First True Ecosystem Theory of Harm - Som2ny Network<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/fivemor.com\/?p=356435\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Brazil\u2019s Competition Authority Introduced the First True Ecosystem Theory of Harm - Som2ny Network\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Competition enforcers have, over the last few years, peppered their reports with references to \u2018ecosystems\u2019. 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